While not inherently a single supra-regional form of german, old high german encompasses numerous west germanic dialects that underwent a set of consonantal changes called the second sound shift.
At the base of this period, dialectal areas reflected the territories of somewhat independent tribal kingdoms, congratulations, by 788. Charlemagne's conquests led to the unification of all ohg dialectal areas into a single state.At the time presented, a stable linguistic boundary between germanic and gallo-romance, later french, was also formed.
Ancient upper germanic strongly retained the synthetic inflectional system inherited from its pre-germanic forms. The final destruction of such a service, leading to the formation of a more analytical grammar, is considered to be the transition to middle high german.
All surviving old high german texts were produced in monastic scriptoria, so most of the men are religious in character or, if they are secular, belong to the latin literary culture of christianity. Very early copies, dating from the second half of the viii century, are glosses - notes in the margins or between the lines, containing translations of (latin) content or other assistance to the reader.
Periodization[edit]
The old high german language is generally dated to the period from about 750 to 1050[para].[Para] with the beginning of this period the written tradition of ohg begins, at first only glosses, but by the ixth century. Significant translations and intriguing compositions appear.[2] however, that the defining feature of old upper german, the second sound shift, may have begun in the vi century and was completed by 750, means that everyone takes the vi century as the start of the phase. [A] alternatively, terms such as voralthochdeutsch ("pre-upper germanic") [three or vorliterarisches althochdeutsch ("pre-literary ong") [4] are sometimes used for the phase before 750.[B] regardless of the terminology, all recognize the distinction between the pre-literary period and the beginning of a continuous tradition of written texts from about the middle of the viii century.[5]
The ways in which the lombard language is put are also different. The lombard language is an elbo-germanic, and therefore an upper germanic dialect, or this section shows early signs of a second sound shift. Because of this, some scholars consider the lombard language as an element of old upper germanic,[6] however, taking into account the lack of extant texts - only individual words and names in latin texts - and the departure of speakers from the language that began by the viii century. Speakers' departure from the language,[7] others exclude lombard from the discussion of ohg.[8] as heidermann notes, this exclusion is based on external circumstances of preservation, but not on inter-room features of the language.[8]
The end of the period is less controversial. Sound changes reflected in orthography in the xi century led to a restructuring of the entire communication of noun and adjective declensions.[9] in addition, there is a century-long "deficit of continuous texts" at the end of notker labeo's death in 1022.[5] the middle of the xi century is generally agreed to mark the direction towards middle upper germanic.[10]
Territory[edit]
Old upper germanic encompasses dialects that underwent a second sound shift in the vi century, namely all the elbian dialects and most of the weser-rhine germanic https://x-video.tube dialects.
Francs in the foreign regions of francia (neustria and western austria) to the origins of the ohg period gradually advanced into a gallo-romance language, the linguistic border of which subsequently stabilized roughly along the course of the meuse and moselle in the east, with the northern border probably running slightly south of the modern border between french and dutch.[11] north of such a line, the franks retained their language, but the malaise did not go away affected by a second sound shift which separated the low franconian or old netherlandish varieties from the more eastern franconian dialects which became part of the constituent parts of old upper german.[12]
In the south, the lombards, who had settled in northern italy, retained their dialect until their conquest by charlemagne in 774. After these formalities, the germanic-speaking population, which by that time was almost certainly bilingual, gradually adopted the romance language of the indigenous population, so that at the end of the ohg period the lombard language became extinct.[7]
At the beginning of the period, no single germanic language existed in the eastern direction from a line from kieler-förde to the elbe and saale rivers, because the earlier germanic-speaking inhabitants of the northern side of the area had been displaced by the slavs. The area did not become germanic-speaking until the germanic expansion to the east ("ostcolonization", "ostziedlung") of the early xiith century, although there were attempts at conquest and missionary activity under the ottons.[13]
The alemannic state was conquered by chlodwig i in 496, but in the last twenty years of the viii. Charlemagne conquered the saxons, frisians, bavarians, and lombards, subjecting all continental german-speaking peoples to frankish rule. Although this lead to some influence of the frankish language, the language of the superiors and the church was latin, so the unification did not lead to an increase in the personal efficacy of the supra-regional variety of frankish, nor to a standardization of old upper german; individual dialects retained their identity.
Dialects[edit]
There is no standard or supra-regional variety of old upper german - each manual is published in a specific dialect, but in some cases in a mixture of dialects. The main dialectal divisions of old upper german were obviously similar to those of later periods - they were based on established territorial groupings and the influence of the second sound shift, which has retained its influence to this day. However, since direct documentation of the old high german language is described only in manuscripts created in a number of large church centers, there is no online information about isoglossas, on which modern dialect maps are based. That is why dialects are called "monastic" (klosterdialekte).[14]
Main dialects with reference to bishoprics and monasteries:[15]
Central german east franconian: fulda, bamberg, würzburgmiddle franconian: trier, echternach, colognerhine franconian: lorsch, speyer, worms, mainz, frankfurtsouth franconian: wissembourgalemannic: murbach, reichenau, st. Gallen, strasbourgbavarian: freising, passau, regensburg, augsburg, ebersberg, wessobrunn, benediktbeuern, tegernsee, salzburg, mondsee
Besides these, there are two poorly attested dialects:
Thuringian is attested exclusively in 4 runic inscriptions and a number of possible glosses.[16] langobardic was a dialect of the lombards who invaded northern italy in the vi century, and little evidence of it survives except for names and single words in latin texts and a couple of runic inscriptions. It fell into decline after the conquest of the lombard kingdom by the franks in 774. It is classified as upper germanic based on evidence of a second sound shift.[17] the continued existence of a west frankish dialect in the european, romanized part of francia is unclear. Claims about whether it is the language of the carolingian court or where it is attested in ludwigslid, whose presence in a french manuscript suggests bilingualism, are considered controversial.[15][16]
Literacy[edit]
Old high german literacy is the product of monasteries such as those at st. Gallen, reichenau, and fulda. Its origins are found in the creation and promotion of the german church by st. Boniface from within the viii century, and its subsequent development during the carolingian renaissance in the ixth century. The devotion to the preservation of ancient upper german epic poetry among scholars of the carolingian renaissance was considerably greater than the scanty remains we have at our disposal today (less than two hundred lines between the "hildebrandslid" and the "muspilli") would more easily suggest. Einhard tells us that charlemagne himself ordered the collection of epic tales for posterity. (18) it was the neglect or religious zeal of later generations that caused the loss of these records. Thus charlemagne's feeble successor, louis the pious, destroyed his own father's collection of epic poetry because of its pagan content[19]
Rabanus maurus, a pupil of alcuin and afterward abbot at fulda, was an important advocate of german literacy. Among his pupils were walafrid of strabo and otfried of weissenburg.
At the end of the old high german period, notker labeo became the first of the major stylists of the language and developed a systematic orthography.[20]
Writing system[edit]
The old high german language was the culmination of the transition from the runic script of the pre-upper german period[21] to the latin alphabet. This transition led to significant variations in orthography, as individual scribes and scriptoria had to develop their own transliteration of sounds not peculiar to the latin script[22]. Otfried von weissenburg, in one of the prefaces to his own evangelienbuch, gives feedback and examples of some of the problems encountered in adapting the latin alphabet to german: "...Sic etiam in multis dictis scriptio est propter litterarum aut congeriem aut incognitam sonoritatem difficilis." ("...Similarly in various expressions the spelling is difficult due to the jumble of letters or their unfamiliar sound.")[23] the careful orthographies of ogh isidore and notker demonstrate a similar understanding.[22]
Phonology[edit]
The diagrams show the vowel and consonant systems of the ixth-century east franconian dialect. This is the dialect of the monastery of fulda also, specifically, the old upper germanic language of tatian. Dictionaries and ohg grammars often apply the orthography of the tatian dialect in the role of a substitute for the present standard spellings, the advantage of which is that the films are recognizably close to middle upper german word forms, especially in matters of consonants.[24]
Vowels[edit]
Ancient german had six phoneme short vowels and five phoneme long vowels. Both these and others occurred in stressed and unstressed syllables. Also, there were six diphthongs.[25]
Notes:
1. Vowel length was inconsistently indicated in manuscripts (although it is consistent in current reference books). Doubling a vowel letter, circumflex, or bitter accent was usually used to indicate a long vowel.[26]2. Short slender and middle vowels may have been articulated more pleasantly than their long counterparts as in modern german. This is not realistically ascertainable from written sources.3. All back vowels probably had allophones of front vowels as a consequence of umlaut.[27] allophones of front vowels probably became full phonemes in middle upper german. In the old upper germanic period there was an [e] (possibly a mid-closer vowel) formed as a result of the eventual umlaut of /a/ and /e/[clarification needed, and it in all likelihood did not leave phonematized until the end of the current period. Manuscripts sometimes emphasize the two sounds /e/. By convention, current grammars and dictionaries use ⟨ë⟩ for the middle vowel and ⟨e⟩ for the professional and close vowel. Reduction of unstressed vowels[edit]
By the middle of the xi century, the many different vowels occurring in unstressed syllables had very much been reduced to ⟨e⟩ /ə/.[28]
Examples:
(The new upper german forms of this word are the same as the middle upper german forms.)
Consonants[edit]
The main difference between old upper germanic and the west germanic dialects, from which it developed, is that the original language underwent a second sound shift. Due to this change, the german consonant system is more optimal than all other west germanic languages, including english and lower germanic.
1. There are significant differences with respect to the consonants of the old upper german dialects, due in large part to any degree of influence on them by the high german sound shift. Exact articles on the articulation of the consonants cannot be ascertained.2. In the plosive and fricative series, if there are 2 consonants in a cell, the first is fortis and the other lenis. The voicing of lenis consonants varies in different dialects.3. Old upper german distinguished between long and short consonants. The double spelling of consonants indicates not the preceding short vowel, as in modern german, but the true gemination of the consonants. In old upper german there are such double consonants as pp, bb, tt, dd, ck (for /k:/), gg, ff, ss, hh, zz, mm, nn, ll, rr./Θ/ changed, to /d/ in practically all dialects during the ixth century. In old high german tatian (c. 830), as the scheme is reflected in advanced old high german dictionaries and glossaries, th occurs in the easy position and d in the competing positions.4. It is unclear whether old upper german /x/ acquired a palatalized allophone [ç] after front vowels, as such a thing works in new german.5. The twisted tail z (ȥ) sometimes appears in advanced grammars and dictionaries to denote an alveolar fricative, arising from the all-germanic t by consonant shift in distinct german. This distinguishes our from the alveolar affricate, which was represented as z. This distinction gains no counterpart in unrivaled manuscripts, except in isidore's old upper german, where tz is used for the affricate.6. The original germanic fricative s in writing was usually clearly distinguished from the younger fricative z, which arose in consequence of a shift of consonants in the distinct germanic language. The sounds of the two letters probably did not merge until the xiii century. After that, s was pronounced as /ʃ/ before the main consonants (as in stein /ʃtaɪn/, speer /ʃpeːɐ/, schmerz /ʃmɛrts/ (originally smerz) or in the southwestern pronunciation of words such as ast /aʃt/), probably the actual pronunciation of germanic s was roughly between [s] and [ʃ], quite possibly around [s̠], in virtually all old high germanic languages up to late middle high german. Thus, a word like swaz, "whatever", would never have turned out to be [swas], but more [s̠was], later (xiii c.) [Ʃwas], [ʃvas]. Phonological changes[edit]
Such segment includes the sound changes that turned west germanic into old high german, not the late ohg changes that affected middle high german:
/Ɣ/, /β/ > /ɡ/, /b/ in any positions (/ð/ > /d/ was already in west germanic. Most, but countable units of high germanic areas have undergone the change. - Pg *sibi "sieve" > ohg sib (cf. Old english sife), pg *gestra "yesterday" > ohg gestaron (cf. Oe ġeostran, ġ - fricative /ʝ/ )- the unheminated postvocalic /p/, /t/, /k/ are spirantized intervocally to /ff/, /ȥȥ/, /xx/ and for other places to /f/, /ȥ/, /x/. The /tr/ cluster is excluded. Compare old english slǣpan and old high german slāfan.- The word originally, after resonance as well as hemination, the same consonants affricatized to /pf/, /tȥ/ and /kx/, oe tam: ohg zam. - The distribution of /k/ > /kx/ is geographically very limited and therefore not reflected in actual standard german.- In traditional german, these are categories of /d/ in all poses, but to /b/ and /ɡ/ only in circumstances of their gemination. Pg *brugjo > *bruggo > brucca, but *leugan > leggen.
- Similarly, /au/ > /ô/ before /r/, /h/ and any dental; otherwise, /au/ > /ou/. Pg *dauþaz "death" > ohg tôd, but *haubudą "head" > houbit. Here /h/ refers only to the inherited /h/ from pie *k, but not to the result of the consonant shift /x/, which is sometimes spelled h.
Morphology[edit]
Nouns[edit]
Verbs[edit]
Times[edit]
Germanic had an elementary scheme of two tenses, with the present and preterite forms. You were inherited by old high german, but also in the selected direction in ohg three periphrastic tenses appeared: perfect, pluperfect, and coming.
Periphrastic past tenses were formed by combining the present or preterite of an auxiliary verb (wësan, habēn) with the past participle. The original participle retained its original function as an adjective and showed case and genitive endings - nominative for intransitive verbs, accusative for transitive verbs.[29] for example:
After thie thö argangana warun ahtu taga (tatian, 7,1) "after eight days", literally "later eight days passed" latin: et postquam consummati sunt dies octo (luke 2:21)[30]
Phīgboum habeta sum giflanzotan (tatian 102:2) "there was a fig tree there which a man had planted," literally "a fig tree was planted by some one (or child)."
Latin: arborem fici habebat quidam plantatam (luke 13:6)[31][32]
As it happens, gradually these endings fell out of use, and the participle came to be regarded hereafter not as an adjective, but still as an element of the verb, as in modern german. It is recognized that this development was due to the need to pass on medieval latin forms,[33] but parallels in competing germanic languages (e.G. Gothic, where biblical texts were translated from greek but not through latin) suggest that such was an independent development.[34][35]
Germanic and did not receive future decades, but just as ohg created periphrastic forms using the auxiliary verb skulan (modern german sollen) and the infinitive, or werden and the real participle:
Thu scalt beran einan alawaltenden (otfrid's evangelienbuch i, 5,23) "you will give birth to the almighty" inti nu uuirdist thu suigenti' (tatian 2,9) "and now you will begin to be silent" lat: et ecce eris tacens (luke 1:20)[36]
Along with such new forms, the present moment continued to be used to indicate the future tense (as it is even in civilized german).
Conjugation[edit]
The next example of a strong verb conjugation is nëman "to take".
Personal pronouns[37][edit]
Syntax[edit]
Any description of the syntax of the og is coupled with a fundamental problem: texts transcribed from or based on the latin original will appear to be syntactically influenced by their source,[38] whereas in poetic works, patterns may emerge due to the needs of rhyme and meter, or namely literary archaisms.[39] however, the mandatory word order requirements are entirely consistent with modern standard german.[40]
Two differences from the high-tech language are the way the subject pronoun is omitted and the lack of definite and indefinite articles. An example of both features in force is the beginning of a viii century alemannic creed from st. Gall:[41]kilaubu in got vater almahticun (modern german, ich glaube an gott den allmächtigen vater; english "i believe in god, the all-powerful father").[42]
By the end of the ohg period, however, the use of the subject is omnibus, the definite article has evolved from the original demonstrative pronoun (der, diu, daz),[43] and the numeral ein ("one") has entered usage in the role of the indefinite article.[44] these kinds of changes are usually seen as mechanisms to compensate for the loss of morphological distinctions caused by the weakening of unstressed vowels in noun and verb endings (see above).[C][d]
Texts[edit]
The early period saw considerable